Media and the Empowerment of Communities for Social Change - Chapter 6: Discussion, Recommendations and Concluding Remarks

This is an excerpt from the thesis "Media and the Empowerment of Communities for Social Change".

6.0 Introduction

Chapter six is the discussion of the major findings from both the qualitative and quantitative data analysis. The discussion comprises a detailed explanation of the findings from Chapter Four and Five [see links below] and reflects the literature findings in this area.

It should be recalled that the aims of this research (as stated in Chapter One) were to investigate the issue of media access by rural households and how media was being and could be used as an empowerment tool in development. It should also be noted that there is no other study to my knowledge, which has been carried out in the country to find the level of access to information by rural female heads of households, nor looked critically at the historical background and relevance of community women media projects and the benefits of adopting the participatory approach in development communication. The discussion that follows is sub-divided into six sections as shown below.

-Discussion of Buhera District Case Study
-Discussion of the Development Through Radio Project
-Discussion of Africa Women Filmmakers Trust
-Discussion of the Buhera District Case Study, DTRP and AWFT media projects
-Recommendations of the study
-Concluding remarks.

6.1 Discussion of Buhera District Case Study

This section comprises the discussion on findings mainly from the quantitative data analysis. Information from observations and in-depth interviews with some of the media practitioners and experts are used in this discussion either to support or refute the study findings. Out of the 136 households that were sampled for this study, a majority of them were extended families. Combined incomes of the majority of these households was not sufficient to meet their basic needs.

6.1.1 Word of Mouth

Word of mouth emerged as the dominant method by which rural female heads of households interviewed received most of their information be it on educational, developmental or social issues (see Chapter Four). This was also supported by information from the qualitative interviews (see Chapter Five). Health information could be received from either nurses when the respondents visited the clinic or from health extension services. In terms of agricultural information, it seemed that most of it would be received from agricultural extension services or farmer meetings. Farmer meetings, farmer exchange visits and seed shows were cited in the qualitative interviews as alternative vehicles for the exchange of information on agricultural issues by word of mouth (Dengu, interview data).

The problem that may arise from educational and developmental information being disseminated largely by word of mouth and particularly in an unorganised manner is the possibility of information being distorted, exaggerated or issues being misrepresented. This may not be deliberate on the part of those giving the information but they may also not have understood the subject they listened to, read or watched.

It was evident that at the Church, meetings, home and funerals were places the respondents got most of their information by word of mouth. Information disseminated in this way varied, from announcements, discussions, demonstrations and personal communications among those present.

It seemed as if the value attached to information received by word of mouth was also dependent on who had said it. There is need for more research to verify this observation.

6.1.2 Access to Radio and Television

A significant number of the households which participated in the survey, 43.4%, had a radio set but only 30.9% of these were working. Due to the high cost of batteries, lack of alternative cheap source of power, there was selectivity in terms of listening habits of the respondents who had working radios. In terms of television, only six households had television sets. From these figures, it is evident that there is limited access to both radio and television among these rural households.

The implication of limited access to radio and television in the rural areas is that if radio or television is used to disseminate educational and developmental information which is targeted to rural communities, the majority of the households would be excluded, firstly because they don't have the equipment and secondly because they may not be tuning in at that particular time because of lack of electricity, batteries or a cheaper source of power.

Reception to both radio and television was not a problem in this area. It was however my observation during the course of my duties as a media practitioner that some remote areas in Manicaland, Nkayi District, Beitbridge and Plumtree have poor or no reception. People in these areas resort to tuning to stations from neighbouring countries, South Africa in the case of those in Beitbridge and Mozambique in the case of those in Manicaland. As a result, communities in these areas would be excluded due to poor or lack of reception from educational and developmental information broadcast on radio and television. Despite the above observations the sample of my study provided an optimistic impression and overall access rates to media.

6.1.3 Choice of radio and television programmes

Developmental radio programmes were hardly mentioned as favourites by the female heads of households. The way these programmes are packaged may not be appealing to the respondents or they may not be meeting their most important needs. It was evident that generally when they had access to a working radio, they would tune in to other programmes not necessarily developmental orientated ones. The three most popular radio programmes cited were Zviziviso Zverufu, News and Chakafukidzadzimba Matenga.

Zviziviso Zverufu (funeral messages), a programme which announces deaths and funeral arrangements was the most popular programme. In this case, one can say that the radio was playing the role of a rural telephone. This programme was a favourite because of the cultural importance attached to funerals. Funerals are important traditional ceremonies among the people of Zimbabwe and one does not want to miss the funeral of a beloved one, friend, or an acquaintance.

Respondents said that they liked the news programmes because they enable them to learn about what happening in other areas while Chakafukidzadzimba Matenga informed them on cultural issues. What was evident is that respondents were giving priority to programmes that informed them on specific social issues and news. This does not mean that they were not interested in educational and developmental issues but due to limited access, they had to make choices of what programmes they would listen to. I was not able to establish favourite television programmes of the respondents because access to television was limited, only six television sets of which five were working.

6.1.3 Access to telephone and post

I randomly listened to some radio programmes on Radio 4 on health, agriculture and also others, which were addressing social issues e.g. violence against women. The programmes generally comprised of segments whereby experts would be giving information to the audiences. Some incorporated phone-ins and write-ins to enable the audiences to participate in the discussions. Participation of rural communities in these programmes would be limited because of lack of access to a telephone or a working telephone. For example, among the households sampled, only two had a telephone and of these two telephones, only one was working. So, the majority of the households in this community would be excluded from phone-in programmes.

In the case of write-ins, it was my observation that there was no local post office in the area I conducted the survey. The nearest post office was at the growth point, around thirty kilometres away. Letters could take a long time to reach the broadcasting station to enable their contributions to be used. Apart from that, since the majority of the household's sampled could not meet their basic needs, due to the cost of postage, some of the members of the community would be excluded. It is my conclusion that in both phone-ins and write-ins, because of lack or underdeveloped infrastructure, the majority of the households would have been excluded. The process therefore denied the majority of rural households a voice or an effective feedback mechanism. Lack of a voice or representation on these programmes could have also affected listenership as communities could have failed to identify themselves with the educational and developmental radio programmes.

I inquired from the female head of household with a working phone about how they used it. Because of the high costs of making calls, they used it mostly to receive messages for themselves as well as for other members of the community. However, on further inquiry, it became evident that messages that could be relayed were funeral messages, or about someone who was seriously sick. This was also confirmed by the information I collected from the qualitative interviews. For example, a research by the Intermediate Technology Group was said to have revealed that the telephone was serving more a social function in the rural areas. Its role in the development process had not yet been explored.

...initially the approach was, who is using the phone to communicate how much vegetables are selling for in Mutare so that they could send their vegetables to the market. We realised that they don't normally use it for that purpose. Rural communities normally use it to pass on messages about deaths and illness (Dengu, interview data)

This household with a working telephone did not allow members of the community to use their phone to pass messages even for a fee. This family seemed not to be aware of how they could use their phone to provide service to the community as well as generate income for themselves. Chitongo suggested a way the telephone could be used by a household to generate money for themselves as well as save other households valuable time and money hence increase productivity by making community members pay for the use of the telephone to inquire about prices, to make their orders, and to pass other social information (Chitongo, interview data).

The few telephone lines in the rural communities if used in a more innovative way could therefore contribute in the transformation of some families' lives both socially and economically. From an economic point of view, communities could use the phone to inquire about products required on the market and prices.

In Mrewa, which is about eighty kilometres from Harare, communities there are involved in horticulture. Mobile phones have a good reception in the area. I observed that communities in this area had started to use mobile phones to inquire prices and demand of their horticulture products. If a particular product were flooding the market, they would not harvest and if the demand for a particular product is high, prices are generally good, so they harvest and take their produce to the main market in Harare, Mbare.

6.1.3 Access to the Print Media

The total number of respondents who said that they get information from magazines or newspapers on social, health and agricultural issues was very small, below 5% of the respondents interviewed (see table 4g, section 4.1.10). The low figures could not have been due to the educational level attained or level of literacy since more than 84.6% of respondents had gone to school up to primary school and 19.9% up to secondary school. 86.8% of the respondents could read Shona, 51.5% English and only 4.4% Ndebele (see table 4h). This meant that if developmental literature was written in Shona, 86.8% of the respondents would be able to read it and only 13.2% would be excluded. In terms of English, 51.5% would be able to read and 48.5% would be excluded. Literature written in Ndebele would exclude 95.6% of the respondents. To reach most of these respondents, Shona was the most appropriate language to use. It is important to bear in mind that had this survey been done in Matebeleland Province where the dominant local language is Ndebele, it is most likely that the majority of the respondents would have been more articulate in Ndebele.

It emerged in this study that the high illiteracy was not a problem since the literacy rates were high. The problem seemed to be a lack of reading material in a language the target group was more comfortable with, in this case, Shona. Respondents said that they hardly had access to literature on educational and developmental issues particularly in local languages. Most developmental print materials produced were in English. This meant that many of the female heads of households were excluded. Among those who had indicated that they could read English, there is a possibility that they could fail to understand some of the information written in English because of the level used.

Chitongo, a media practitioner with Intermediate Technology Group, during the face-to-face interview said that the problem in terms of accessing print information in the rural areas was generally due to the lack of a reading culture. This was also supported by the Harare Book Fair, hence the theme in 2000, 'Catch them young'. The aim was therefore to cultivate the reading culture in the society. This study showed that the problem of limited access to print information was not due to the absence of the reading culture but the scarcity of educational and development information in an appropriate language. Apart from that, as was pointed by Dube, from Musasa Project, most of the developmental organisations had limited budgets as a result they were not able to print enough copies to meet the demand.

6.1.6 Extension Services and Development

Ministry of Health, Agriculture, Gender, Youth and Employment Creation have extension officers in the rural areas whose task is to promote development. The majority of the female heads of households interviewed said that they had regular contact with extension services and that they valued their services. However, what was not assessed in this study is to what extent they used the information they received and to what extent it had transformed their lives. The obstacles hindering their progress were also not assessed. Such information could help in the design of development communication strategies for future intervention. This is one area I intend to look at in my next research project.

Among the village community workers I have worked with were many individuals who had dropped out during primary or secondary school. Most of them seemed not to have gone through any specialised training to equip them with the skills they required to do their jobs more effectively. However, among the agricultural extension officers, the majority had either a diploma in agriculture or a University degree. These were therefore experts in agriculture but not in media. This was also the case with the staff heading the media units of both the Ministry of Agriculture and Family Planning. They were skilled agriculturalist or health workers who had not done any media training. They had therefore limited knowledge on how they could use media in more innovative ways to achieve their intended goals. Extension services used mainly word of mouth to disseminate developmental information. They seemed to have limited access to print materials to complement their work.

6.1.7 Mobile videos for development

It was evident in this study that mobile films were a source of information among most of the respondents. However, what this study did not assess was the frequency of the mobile screenings. However, based on the comments from the respondents during the quantitative interviews, it was evident that they were not a regular event since some of them had not watched for over five years and others up to thirty years ago, while others could not remember when they had last heard about them. The only mobile video films that had been screened in this community which participated in the survey, had been by the Ministry of Information. The Ministry of Information Mobile Film Unit would screen Karate, Boxing and Wrestling Programmes to attract more people to come so as to boost revenue from advertisements. Mobile video shows were, as a result, perceived by some female heads of households, as a form of entertainment, therefore ideal for children not adults. I realised that most of the respondents had actually attended these mobile film shows when they were young or in school.

The Ministry of Information, mobile film unit screens films after sunset. However, female heads of households said that they preferred to watch mobile videos during the afternoon. As a result, most of the women would not turn up to mobile video screenings after sunset either because of household chores or due to cultural restrictions. Mobile screenings by the Ministry of Information like the Group Africa Road Show video screenings are targeted to the general public. It is possible that the needs of some of the members of the community are not being addressed.

Other problems faced by the Ministry of Information Mobile Film Units was that they wanted to raise revenue to sustain its operations. This revenue could only be raised through advertisements, which were slotted in during the screening sessions. The amount advertisers would pay to have their advertisements inserted during screenings was dependent on the number of viewers. In order to increase the revenue, more people had to attend. The question was how to attract them to the screenings. Screenings had to be free if the community members were to attend. Developmental programmes alone would not be able to attract the large numbers of people required by the advertising industry. Wrestling, Boxing and Karate programmes were introduced. This, as I stated earlier, could have changed the way some members of the community, particularly women, viewed the mobile film screenings. It would not be surprising that the majority of the audiences for the video screenings was composed mainly of the youth and men. The educational agenda was watered down, which made some of the media practitioners, particularly from the Ministry of Health, conclude that the service did not serve them well.

However, in spite of attempts to generate revenue, by 2000, most of the mobile units by the Ministry of Information in the districts were grounded as the vehicles were too old and the equipment had broken down. Apart from that, the film projectors were no longer compatible as most developmental and educational programmes were being made on video and the cost of making 16mm versions was prohibitive. In February 2002, I learnt that the Ministry of Information had acquired four-wheel drive vehicles for all the rural provinces to boost their ailing mobile video and film unit. There seems to be commitment from government to revive the ailing mobile film (video) units.

6.1.8 Summary

What is evident in this section is that there is limited or lack of access to both print and electronic media among most of the households which participated in the survey. Most of the participants got information on social, developmental, agricultural and health issues by word of mouth.

6.2 Discussion of Development Through Radio Project

The DTRP was set up to show how the democratisation of radio could be achieved by giving a voice to the voiceless, promote two-way communication in development, enable women to set their own agenda and to improve access to media by rural women. These efforts were meant to stimulate rural development.

This study showed that the project managed to give a voice to the members of the RLC's. It also enabled them to set their own agenda for social change. However, the majority of the rural women, particularly those in the remote parts of the country were marginalised since the RLC's are concentrated in peri-urban areas or near growth points. So, the majority of rural women remained without a voice.

A two-way communication between the RLC members and the authorities was established. Members of RLC's had an opportunity to question those in authority or bring up issues or matters that were of interest and concern to them. The authorities were able to have dialogue with these RLC members without having to go to their constituencies. By having an opportunity to present their problems, they were not only able to have dialogue with authorities but to highlight issues which they felt needed urgent redress. This programme also raised the interest of non-governmental organisations, some of whom decided to work with them by assisting their income generating projects. For example, Batsiranayi RLC was able to secure a wire-making machine and funds to build their factory. Zvanakiresu RLC was able to secure loans for their buying and selling co-operatives.

Radio 4, which broadcasts the RLC Programme, was set up with the aim of promoting development and the use of local languages. The RLC Programme was broadcast in Shona for those in Mashonaland and in Ndebele for those in Matebeleland. This enabled communities to communicate freely in a language they were more articulate in. Experts and authorities who participate in these programmes also use local languages to communicate.

FAMWZ which managed the DTRP jointly with ZBC was set up because media women felt that they were marginalised. In my previous research (Matewa, 1997), I showed that in Zimbabwe, most of the top jobs in the media industry were held by men. Media was generally perceived as a male domain, hence gendered. Technology was also gendered. The DTRP hoped to demystify technology by giving rural women an opportunity to operate a radio set and to record themselves. Through training, technology was demystified to some extent as some of the rural women were able to operate a radio set and to record themselves. To an extent, they were media women in their own right.

However, some of the RLC members could not operate a radio set or record themselves. Training was targeted to the monitors and in some cases one or two other members of the club. In the case of Batsiranayi RLC, only two members could operate the radio set. The plan was that if one of them could not attend, the other would go with the radio set and operate it. It was therefore convenient that these two come from the same area. On the 9th of March, as I conducted the observations, some of the RLC members at Batsiranayi were present but the monitor and the assistant had not come. They were both sick. The other members had not bothered to go and collect the radio set since they could not operate it. As a result, they had gathered to make some fencing wire, as they could not listen to the radio programme that was to be broadcast that afternoon. One can argue that the process adopted empowered some of the members of the group more than others.

It was evident at Batsiranayi RLC that both the monitor and her assistant had not passed on the knowledge they had acquired on how to use the radio set. The process adopted did not empower other RLC members. The process actually alienated some of the members as they still could not operate a radio set. Radio to other members of the group would have remained a mystery.

From the observations and the interviews conducted, it is difficult to assess to what extent the project had boosted development among the participants. However, it seemed that there was more activity at Zvanakiresu RLC, which had also the majority of members. At the other RLC's visited, where their seemed to be no flourishing income-generating project, membership was smaller. At Zvanakiresu RLC, membership was huge and the buying and selling co-operatives seemed to be flourishing. It looked as if the flourishing projects acted as a stimulus to other members of the community to join the RLC.

Although Zvanakiresu RLC had many members and their income generating projects seemed to be flourishing, they still depended on the DTRP for tapes and batteries. There seemed to be some reluctance on the part of members to contribute to the running of their project as there was a general belief among those I spoke to that the money for those services was provided for through donor funding, and so no need for them to contribute. Members of the RLC's I spoke to generally felt that the RLC's were projects which belonged to ZBC and FAMWZ while the income-generating projects were theirs.

6.3 Discussion of Africa Women Filmmakers Trust media projects

Africa Women Filmmakers Trust was established with an aim of exploring how video could be used in more innovative ways to bring about social change. The participatory approach was adopted as the most appropriate technique. It had been hoped that this approach would enable rural women, who were its main target group, to articulate their voice. This process has many similarities to the Fogo Process, which was initiated by Snowden in Newfoundland and is in line with Freire's theories that the process enables the participants to determine content and to create knowledge (Snowden, 1984; Snowden, 1999).

However, what was evident in this research is that although the process adopted enabled participants to interact among themselves and to build a sense of community, participation was limited to a very small segment of the rural population because of limited facilities and personnel.

Among the communities who participated, participatory video production seemed to have enabled them to build a sense of community among themselves. It also enabled them to share experiences and to learn from each other. The Access to Media Programme run by AWFT enabled communities who normally did not have direct access to each other to share experiences and learn from each other's experience. Horizontal communication was therefore enhanced. Similar observations had been noted by Snowden (1999).

When such people see themselves and their peer on video, saying or doing familiar things (perhaps applying methods or organisation), the visual comprehension for the views is so real that in the memory of the individuals, long after the event, the medium of the video may be forgotten. People may recall that they have actually met with those they saw and listened to only on video. Such reality sharpens the experience, so that the specific content of the video message is remembered for a long time after. This visual experience, especially in relation to receiving information from one's peers, or sending out information from one's peers elsewhere, can inspire belief and confidence in individuals and in the total community. It is exciting to learn that one's own experience and knowledge is important to others and can be an example to others. It is just as exciting to learn that others to whom one can relate to have solved problems similar to your own in ways you might not have thought of (Snowden 1999:7).

Participants in the Participation in Production Programme and AWFT were able to realise the different uses of video. Communities realised that they could use it as a training tool to preserve their history and to share skills with others.

The Participation in Production Programme had some technical limitations. There was not sufficient equipment to enable the training of participants to operate a video camera which would have enabled them to record their programmes.

AWFT is managed by women. It is my belief that the two programmes run by AWFT could have helped to change communities' attitudes towards women working in the media, which traditionally was seen as a male domain.

Traditional media, in this case poetry and music, were incorporated in some of the productions, for example, Survival and Mufuku. Both poetry and music were used to convey a message. The poetry in the film Survival enabled viewers to understand what was going on in the mind of Mrs Ndlovu who had been deserted by her husband. Music also reinforced the message, for example the music in the film 'Survival' highlighted the plight of rural women as well as encouraged them to work hard to change their condition. The music and poetry helped to reinforce the message that the participants in this production wanted to convey, that they were not victims of the economic situation but survivors.

Video equipment used by AWFT, although appropriate for community video production is not of broadcasting quality standard. Although AWFT had hoped to generate revenue by selling some of its productions to television stations, because of the quality of their programmes, this had not materialised due to technological limitations.

It seemed as if participatory video was not widely practised in the country. While AWFT considered the process it used in the production of videos to be equally and in some cases more important than the video, a position also supported by Richardson (1997), the process seemed not to be acceptable to most of the funders, hence the limited financial support and difficulties faced when fundraising for the project. In spite of participatory video having been introduced during the 1970's in Canada, it still had not gained popularity among most communication for development practitioners using video in the country.

It was evident in this study that outcomes observed by AWFT in the process of using participatory video could not have been realised if the traditional approach had been adopted, for example, the sense of community displayed by the participants of one of the case studies incorporated in the film entitled 'Survival'. Communities collected cash to help one of the community members in the film entitled 'Survival'. In the case of the production of the film entitled, 'Democracy-Community Participation', the councillor was able to realise his weaknesses and vowed to work with the community for the development of the area. Here, attitudes of individuals and communities change just by having participated in the process. These examples demonstrated that the process used was equally important as the outcome, in this case, the video produced.

6.4 Discussion of the Buhera District Case Study, DTRP and AWFT

The Survey revealed that access to both print and electronic media among rural households which participated in the Survey was limited or lacking. This was the assumption by both AWFT and FAMWZ when they initiated media projects that were meant to improve access to information in rural areas. The main target group for these media initiatives was women. Participatory approaches, which made participants protagonists of their development, were adopted. In both cases, messages are not merely delivered to people but the people participate in the creation of information and knowledge. The emphasis of these projects is not only on the production of content, but also on the participatory process, which is believed to be empowering.

6.4.1 Appropriate Information Technology

It was evident that FAMWZ initiated the DTRP believing that radio was the most appropriate technology for rural development while AWFT believed that video could be able to meet the information needs of rural communities more effectively. The two case studies show that both technologies have an important role to play in development and could also be used to complement each other. For example, on the 9th of March 2001, the topic that was broadcast and discussed focused on agricultural techniques, drying of vegetables and wild fruits. The women at Zvanakiresu RLC expressed a desire to adopt these new innovations. Unfortunately, the co-ordinator expressed to them that funds which would have enabled them to go and observe how those in Mubaira were doing it had run out. With video, the process could easily have been demonstrated to the RLC members who wanted to learn new skills.

In the case of the Buhera District Case Study, it emerged that radio and video remain inaccessible to the majority of the rural female heads of households interviewed. Although community media projects have been set up to fill this gap, because of their limited infrastructure, it was evident that the majority of the rural communities still had limited or lacked direct access to both radio and video. In Buhera District for instance, there are no RLC's and AWFT with only two mobile units had not been able to screen video films in this part of the District.

It emerged in this study that Participation of rural women in the DTRP and AWFT media projects remains limited due to lack of technical expertise. Both projects were meant to discredit the myth that technology is gendered. This had been achieved only to a very limited extent as most of the beneficiaries could not operate a radio or a video camera. Participation of the communities or stakeholders was therefore in most cases limited to providing the contents of programmes.

The DTRP showed how community media could be integrated into national media or mainstream media. The same technique could also be used with video hence making community video programmes accessible to a wider audience.

6.4.2 Empowerment

The other aim of looking at these two projects by AWFT and FAMWZ was to show how the techniques adopted empowered their target groups. Empowerment could be said to have been achieved through the process of generation of knowledge. People used to being talked down to were able to realise that they have a voice and could articulate it. The radio and video programmes were both informative and educative. Participants were able to learn new skills of doing things, e.g. how to dry vegetables in the sun and how to do marbling. It also boosted confidence among the participants. Empowerment in this case was not something that could be measured only in material terms. Empowerment could therefore be defined as a process of enlightenment and awakening. Communities have information, which enables them to make decisions, and in some cases they are able to acquire new skills. Communities, which do not normally have a link, were able to share experiences.

6.4.3 Participation of beneficiaries

The similarity between the media project by AWFT and FAMWZ was on the aspect of participation. Participation had been adopted as a way to introduce a more innovative approach to development communication. Women empowerment and participation through access to media seemed to be the common ground between the funders and the founders of the projects.

In both cases, the beneficiaries did not participate in the initial design of the projects. This was not a deliberate attempt by the initiators to marginalise them. It was due to the unavailability of resources to incorporate a participatory process at that stage. Both projects were initiated on the assumption that media could play a positive role in the development of communities and that adopting the participatory approach would empower these communities. Proverbs 31 verse 8 reads, 'Speak up for people who cannot speak for themselves. Protect the rights of all who are helpless. Speak for them and be a righteous judge. Protect the rights of the poor and needy' (Holy Bible – New Living Translation, 1996:684). These projects, by highlighting the fact that women were marginalised and that they had limited access to media which they believed could make a difference to their condition, was therefore fulfilling a prophecy, speaking on their behalf and through the process adopted giving back to the community their voice so that they could speak for themselves.

What has to be understood is that the participatory and empowerment process was going to be on two levels. Firstly, both projects were initiated by media women who felt marginalised by the mainstream media. They found in these projects an opportunity to be in control, and to manage their own projects. These projects therefore empowered media women themselves first and foremost. Secondly, through the processes adopted, communities who participated in these projects were empowered, by being able to articulate their voice.

These projects were initially designed and managed outside the beneficiaries' involvement, however, through production; the beneficiaries were able to participate in the implementation of the project. AWFT through training of local animators hoped to increase their involvement in the management of the project. In both cases, themes were supposed to come from the communities but in other cases, both AWFT and FAMWZ had to initiate topics. FAMWZ would do that when no programmes had been recorded by RLC's. In the case of AWFT, some funding agencies preferred to know in advance topics that would be covered before funds were approved. AWFT admitted that the project was to some extent 'donor driven' and not 'people driven' (Munawa, interview data). AWFT believed that if the project was able to secure funds from its own activities, this would enable communities to have greater say in the productions that were produced, hence the production of programmes determined mostly by the communities. This would enable communities to set their own agenda most of the time.

Apart from the programmes produced by the two women media projects studied for this thesis, it looks as if development is still being seen in terms of modernisation, content being produced without the participation of the target groups who are generally seem as mere recipients. Although the benefits that can accrue by adopting the participatory approach are acknowledged, the problem of putting it into practice is evident, as there seems to be a genuine lack of resources. As a result, it makes sense for government departments to adopt an approach that will reach a wider audience instead of using participatory methods whereby resources may end up benefiting only a limited number of people to the disadvantage of the rest of the population. However, looking at the two case studies, one realises that the participatory approach can still be adopted and applied to a wider audience through national radio and television. Radio Programmes produced in a participatory way are broadcast to a wider audience or in the case of video programmes; mobile video units were being used to reach remote areas.

6.4.4 Flexibility

These projects attempted to adopt the needs of beneficiaries particularly in the times scheduled for broadcasting the programmes in the case of FAMWZ and in the times the video screenings were given in the case of AWFT. Actually, the Access to Media Project was initiated as a request from communities. Communities were supposed to have participated in the design of the Access to Media Programme when it was finally launched. This would have involved conducting workshops with communities whose deliberations would have been incorporated into the design. This was not realised, as financial resources to initiate such a process were not secured. This would have enabled communities to set up an Association whose task would have been to determine how the Participation in Production and Access to Media Programme would have been designed to best meet their goal, a process that AWFT saw as a step that could have started the process of communities having their own autonomy. AWFT's role would have been limited to co-ordinating activities of the Association. Each provincial branch could have had its own vehicle and studio, which infrastructures could have been the basis of setting up community television stations in the future. It is hoped that the Training of Animators Programme, which was launched in January 2002 by AWFT, will enable development activists to appreciate the important role of participatory video in development and will also be a platform they can use to form an association or club of those working with video in development.

The question of distances communities had to walk were also a factor for both organisations to resolve. AWFT decided to increase the number of screenings per area while the DTRP formed splinter groups. This reduced distances community members had to walk. AWFT also realised that women preferred to attend screening workshops during the day and not after sunset and soprocured a video projector with higher lumens that would enable them to screen during the day with reasonably good picture. So, these projects were very flexible in their implementation, and where possible, took the communities concerns.

6.4.5 Communication networks of DTRP and AWFT media projects

In both the project by AWFT and FAMWZ, communication takes place at different levels and each has its specific aim and objective as I illustrate below. There is the local group interaction level, which is elaborated below.

6.4.5.1 Local Group Interaction

Diagram 6.1 Local Group Dialogue

At this level, members of the same community represented above by 'participant a' and 'participant b' have dialogue. This enables them to share ideas and experiences and provides an opportunity to members of the same community to work together on a video focusing on issues of common interest to them. A sense of community emerges and this could enable them to work together on other issues of common interest to them. This applies to both AWFT and the DTRP project. At this level of interaction, exchange learning takes place.

6.4.5.2 Different Groups Interaction

Diagram 6.2 FAMWZ-DTRP Communication Model



A two-way communication is established between different RLC's as shown above. Members of one RLC are able to hear what the other members of another RLC are saying. However, since the programmes are broadcast on National Radio, other community members may also be tuning in. As a result, they are able to follow up the discussions from the RLC's and official's responses to the issues raised. However, as regards the other community members, since they are not members of RLC's they are not able express their view-points or raise issues of interest or concern to them. They may therefore see this process as promoting one-way communication.

Different types of learning take place. Exchange learning occurs between members of the same RLC. Vertical learning takes place between the officials and other communities who are not members of RLC's. Horizontal learning takes place between members of different RLC's and between members of RLC's and the other community members who are not members of RLC's.

Diagram 6.3 AWFT Communication Model

In terms of AWFT, a two-way communication is also evident among the groups, which participate. However, groups, which are not involved in the production process, may be able to watch the programmes.

From the diagram above, it is evident that there are many similarities between the DTRP Communication Model and that of AWFT. Different types of learning take place. Exchange learning occurs between members of the same group. Horizontal communication or learning occurs between different groups and groups that participate in the production process and those who are able to watch the video films. In cases whereby expert information is included in the video, community members who watch the programmes are able to learn from them. This is referred to as vertical learning.

6.4.6 Traditional Media

AWFT showed how traditional media could be integrated with modern media. Songs and poetry were being used as a medium of expression and to spread educative information in some of the video films. Songs and poetry were therefore being used to minister to the needs and desires of the people. AWFT had therefore successfully integrated poetry and songs with modern media, in this case video. Using the participatory approach whereby communities decide when to use music and which type of music and also where it would be used enables the selection of music which is culturally appropriate. This approach therefore deals with problems, which resulted in the general failure of earlier initiatives of using traditional media to disseminate educational and developmental information.

6.4.7 Networking

FAMWZ had established links with other women's organisations and developmental organisations as evidenced by their participation in the RLC's programmes. Through the training of animators programme, AWFT intended to link with development activists from government departments and non-governmental organisations. This networking was meant to benefit the government departments and non-governmental organisations as they could access video production and video projectors for use in their respective constituencies. AWFT could rely on the development activists to mobilise communities for video screenings and productions.

6.4.8 Accountability

Both AWFT and FAMWZ are not accountable to their target audience but to the institutions that give them funds to implement the projects. This is a problem in the sense that communities may feel privileged to be chosen to participate in these programmes, and not see it as their right. In this sense, participants have limited say or power in terms of how the projects are implemented. Through the formation of an Association of those involved in these projects, it is hoped that communities can have a voice and influence the planning and implementation of the projects run by AWFT and FAMWZ.

6.4.9 Sustainability

AWFT had already initiated projects that would make the project self-sufficient in the future, setting up offices and a video studio. FAMWZ on the other hand had plans to establish a radio studio which could be used to produce radio programmes and the same facility could also be hired out to generate income. The problem faced by both organisations was that the beneficiaries were not in a position to pay for information or participation because of the level of poverty. However, one can argue that the position indicated the failure of the DTRP and AWFT to stimulate economic development among participants, hence their activities had not resulted in improved income. However, development should not only be seen in terms of improved income but also in terms of the social development of people. It should be noted that there are other factors that could prevent communities from improving their household income, for example, economic and political factors, access to credit and a lack of other resources, apart from information. What was evident was that media resources alone could not accomplish the developmental goals of individuals or communities. This is also supported by Hornik (1988) who stated that communities needed financial capital and markets both of which were not within the reach of most of these rural communities, I had observed. It is therefore important that media strategies are not planned in isolation from other activities in the community. These activities should compliment each other so that development is assured.

6.4.10 Long-term plans

The two projects were initiated as pilot projects without a time line. However, they both evolved to be projects geared for expansion after the end of the trials. As stated by FAMWZ's first co-ordinator, Mr. Mhonda, the RLC's had become a permanent feature of ZBC programming which would continue even without FAMWZ as they had realised its relevance and importance in terms of development. AWFT on the other hand hoped to expand to a full-fledged production house and continue making videos available to communities as long as the need was there. Plans were there to broadcast some of the community videos hence make them accessible to a wider audience as well as initiating the establishment of tele-centres in the rural areas which would be run and managed by the communities.

6.4.11 Integrated and Multi-Sectoral Approach

Institutions and government departments seem to be working in isolation to solve some development problems. Nyahoda stressed during the face-to-face interview the need of a multi-sectorial approach to development since most of the problems, were dialectically related. He felt that different ministries and institutions could have their own competencies, which could be harnessed to develop a system that was practical, could be sustained and also have a greater impact in terms of development. The need for a holistic approach to development was illustrated by Tsoka during the face-to-face interview.

If you say to a mother, 'Can you feed your child with eggs', it does not mean that she does not know that eggs, a bit of fresh vegetables, fruit, are ideal. The problem is that, that woman does not have those things. It is not a question of knowledge but a question of availability and the limited family resources. So any programme should be wide enough to take care of the critical needs. In terms of even malaria, people know very well what causing malaria is the mosquito's that are biting them but they do not have the resources to buy the mosquito nets to ensure that the mosquito does not bite them. The people will still be bitten by the mosquito in spite of knowing that this mosquito is going to bite them and cause them malaria. So, you find that there are other issues, issues of poverty. So, if you don't address poverty you will exacerbate malaria and if people are sick they don't have the capacity to go and work and produce more (Tsoka, interview data).

It is possible that if developmental institutions and government departments were to harness their resources together to tackle health, agricultural and social problems affecting communities, great progress in these areas could be achieved. One prostitute warned of AIDS is said to have remarked, 'Yes, I am aware that there is AIDS and that it kills, but if I stop prostitution, I will die very soon of hunger. With AIDS, yes, I will die, but not so soon' (personal communication, 1999). So, without addressing the issue of poverty, one could not deal effectively with the health problems, in this case, the spread of AIDS. This example shows that it is not only a question of awareness but also the issue of poverty and to what extent communities are able to implement the recommendations.

Kenya Agricultural Information Centre in collaboration with Mediae Trust, a United Kingdom based organisation have been successful in adopting a holistic approach to development issues using radio. They introduced radio drama to communicate agricultural information. This started as a pilot project. A team of researchers was deployed to find out farming practices and listening habits of people in four districts in Southern Kenya. The research revealed that 69% of the households had radio. The radio programmes Ngina Nacio, which means, 'Hit me with it' was launched. Issues communities had indicated were of interest to them during the research were incorporated in the radio programmes. The success of the pilot project, which was broadcast on Kenya Central Service Station in Ki-Meru language, was the basis of Tembea na Majira, which means, 'Move with the times'. This soap opera is broadcast on Kenya's National Channel. The programme has all characteristics of a soap. Subjects fall in and out of love, fight, argue, make mistakes and rise to the challenges. Although its main target audience is rural women, the soap is made in such a way that it appeals to both men and women since most radios in Kenya are said to belong to men who control what is listened to and not.

The storylines in the Programmes for 2000 were for example based on the biological control of maize stalk bore, domestic violence and the control of malaria. The International Centre for Insect Physiology and Ecology based in Nairobi found that damage to crops could be reduced dramatically by planting Napier grass around maize plots. Napier is fodder for cows. It is also environmentally more friendly than spraying chemicals. The programme encouraged farmers to plant Napier grass instead of using chemicals. Broadcasts coincided with different types of fieldwork, for example ploughing, planting, feeding and harvesting. Health issues were also incorporated e.g. the issue of malaria, which is one of the major killers in Africa. Destroying breeding grounds, use of mosquito nets, were raised in the soap as other ways of controlling malaria. Social issues like wife-beating, domestic violence and child abuse which are hidden problems affecting Kenyan society were also addressed in the soap opera. The approach used enables the dissemination of educative messages in an entertaining way. The qualitative and quantitative approach is used to assess the impact of the radio programmes on the targeted communities. The graph below shows the change in attititudes towards women between 1999 and 2000.

Graph 6.1 Results of Tembea Na Majira quantitative analysis

'Tembea Na Majira' Update, January 2002:2

The results from the year 2000 quantitative research showed that TNM has 6.6 million regular listeners. Radio was shown to be the most important source of information Kenyans have on 'Farming' and 'Health'. The most important source of information on social matters is friends / neighbours while radio follows a close second. When we asked people what programme they got this information from, Tembea Na Majira was the number one named programme. ('Tembea Na Majira' Update, January 2002:2)

From the results of the quantitative approach used to evaluate these radio programmes, it was evident that the use of soap operas could result in people adopting positive behaviours and attitudes.

The quantitative research enables the implementers of the project to see how their efforts have been received and can be improved. This project therefore demonstrates how different issues can be tackled in the same programme. The quantitative process enables the implementers to assess what they are achieving and what remains to be accomplished. Both AWFT and the DTRP by FAMWZ have not been quantifying the impact of their efforts, which is one of the weaknesses in their evaluation techniques. This is however largely due to their limited financial resources.

6.4.12 AWFT and FAMWZ-DTRP achievements in Brief

Media projects by both AWFT and FAMWZ were able to stimulate debate among those who participated in the projects. These debates could have extended to those who listened to the radio programme. Through word of mouth, other people could have been informed about the issues addressed in the video or radio programmes, hence further stimulating debate and dialogue on the subjects. In both cases members were able to secure developmental inputs for themselves or for other communities. The process adopted enabled communities to bring issues to the attention of politicians and non-governmental organisations. In the case of those who participated in the media projects by AWFT, it built confidence among them hence able to participate more actively in other fora.



6.5 Recommendations of the study

6.5.1 General Recommendations

In this research, it was evident that radio, traditional media and video are all good for development. However, the way they are used determines their impact. A process that enables the target groups to participate in both the production of content and dissemination should be encouraged.

This would give communities an opportunity to set their own agenda as well as enable them to set priorities of what issues are dealt with.

research

Research should be encouraged on the various traditional media and explore their potentials as channels of various educational, developmental and social messages. Findings from such studies should be communicated to media practioners, experts and those working in the filed of development communication.

There is also need for research measuring the effects of mass media and micro media interventions in addressing social, educational and developmental issues.

traditional media

Community based communication strategies should be encouraged as well as the integration of traditional media and mass media. When traditional media are used, in particular drama, the process of professionalising it should be discouraged, as this would alienate it from the community. Communities could be encouraged to participate in producing dramas for example on specific educational or developmental themes and these could be staged to the communities. Different communities could meet and present their best dramas and those judged as the best could be awarded a prize and the dramas could be video recorded and screened to other communities or broadcast on national television. This could become not only an avenue of disseminating information but also entertainment for the rural communities who are generally isolated and have limited entertainment.

The importance of involving communities in developing educational and developmental programmes which use the traditional channels to reach its target audience is essential as communities would have an opportunity to advise on the appropriateness of such messages to a particular audience, how best the information should be packaged and how it will be communicated.

use of local languages

In both traditional and modern media, participatory interactive processes should be encouraged. This could be boosted by the promotion of the use of local languages in print, electronic media and when traditional media are used. The use of local languages should also be promoted at media training schools so that media practitioners are able to work in different local languages. This could enable some marginalised communities to have a voice and to participate in the development process as both receivers and generators of information.

evaluation of media initiatives

Practical methods on evaluating media initiatives in development communication should be developed at the design stage of the project. This could be facilitated by conducting short training courses for media practitioners on different strategies and approaches that can be adopted when evaluating media initiatives. This will involve looking at the objectives of the project and identifying the indicators and whether they are measurable or not, and thus selecting the appropriate approach and methods to use for the evaluation process.

Findings of these evaluations should be made accessible to other development media practitioners so that they can learn from the experiences of others.

The benefit of incorporating evaluation during the design of the project enables the allocation of the human and financial resources that would be needed to do it. The evaluation itself enables the media practioners to be able to assess the impact the intervention is having and also to inform on areas that may need modification or enhancement.

Broadcasting Act

There is need to lobby government for the amendment of the Broadcasting Act of 2001 which states that a community broadcasting station can only get a licence for one year, which may not be renewed. Taking into account the cost and time taken to establish a community radio station, one year is too short for it to have had any meaningful impact. The minimum number of years should therefore be between four to five years with a possibility of having it renewed.

development of rural infrastructure

There is need of commitment by government to develop rural infrastructure, that is rural electrification and road network. This would make information more accessible to the rural communities and electricity would be used as an alternative source of power. The ability of people to move from one point to another through an improved road network would improve the flow of information particularly by word of mouth which emerged in this study as the dominant method in which information is received by those who participated in the survey.

tele- centres

The establishment of tele-centres to make information more readily accessable to marginalised rural communities raises a question of sustainability and ownership. Instead of establishing community tele-centres, what may be required is to make some of the community members realise the benefits that could accrue by setting up a tele-centre as a business venture. Households with telephones, for example, could be made aware of the benefits of making the telephone accessible to their neighbours on a commercial basis. Community members would therefore be able to make calls for a fee as well as receive messages. Fax facilities or a computer which would enable community members to use to send and receive fax, send and receive e-mail and browse the internet could be incorporated in the second stage. This could resolve the problem of sustainability and ownership, which according to my observation affects the viability of most community-based organisations.

There is also need to establish tele-centres at rural schools which facility could be accessible to the students and the community. It could also be a source of revenue for the rural schools.

The other alternative approach could be the establishment of tele-centres servicing four to five wards and managed by health, agricultural and community extension workers in that area. These tele-centres could be equipped with a computer with access to the internet, telephone, fax, radio and possibly a television and a video recorder. Each tele-centre could be linked to four other sub-stations in the other wards. Information could be relayed to the sub-tele centres by fax. These sub-stations could be equipped with a telephone line, fax machine and a photocopying machine. The information received from the main telecentre could be duplicated for distribution or pasted on a board. Using the telephone or fax, this would enable those at the sub-tele centres to send there information requests to the main centre where persons manning the place would have to look for the information on their behalf.

These tele-centres could benefit extension services who live in the rural areas as they also have limited access to information that could be of great benefit to the communities they serve.

create awareness of the benefits of using media in development

There is need of conducting workshops and short training courses with development activists whose aim would be to show them the benefits that can accrue when media initiatives are incorporated to compliment their efforts. The training could also focus on what channels of communication are there and how they could be used in different situations. The Southern Africa Film School based in Harare, and sponsored by UNESCO, which was initially set up to train students in development journalism should conduct a needs assessment in the field of development communication and use this information to design training modules.

adoption of a multi-sectoral approach to development

A multi-sectoral approach to development in which Government, Development Organisations and the Private Sector work hand in hand has to be encouraged. Government, Private Sector and the Development Organisations would be responsible for the formulation of policy and supplying the human and material resources that may be required to put the policies in action. The implementers who will comprise the communities and facilitating organisations will use the participatory approach to tackle the development problems. Feedback to the funders will be used to develop policy and plan future strategies. This should be seen as an ongoing process tackling social, developmental, educational, political and health issues.

The adoption of a multi-sectoral approach would enable the collective harnessing of the material and financial resources available, for the effective use of them to address developmental issues.

6.5.2 Recommendations for The DTRP

association of RLC's

The Federation of Africa Media Women should be encouraged to form an Association of RLC members. This will be a platform the RLC members could use to contribute on how the RLC's can be enhanced. There is need to have the RLC members represented in the management structures of the DTRP.

effective communication

Communication between members of the Federation of Africa Media Women - Zimbabwe Chapter, Secretariat and Board members needs to be improved. Members need to be constantly up-dated about the DTRP and other projects run by the FAMWZ.

increase number of RLC's

The RLC's that are operational should be strengthened through training on how to organise meetings, conduct group discussions as well as skills to publicise themselves and their activities in order to get new members and hence make members proud of group accomplishments. New RLC's should be set up particularly in remote parts of the country and in farming and mining areas. Farming and mining communities seem to be marginalised as development activities are focused on rural areas while some communities in farming and mining areas are equally marginalised and in some isolated cases worse off than those in rural areas.

However, the increase in RLC's without increasing the airtime could be frustrating to the members as it might take longer periods for their programmes to be broadcast. There is therefore need to negotiate for more airtime with ZBC if the RLC's are increased. The current thirty minutes airtime allocated to the RLC Programme needs to be increased to forty-five minutes so that issues can be discussed in-depth.

weaning

One of the RLC's I observed has a savings club. After the discussion of the day's radio programme I witnessed some of them banking up to $500. Before we left the club, the co-ordinator gave them some batteries and tapes. This group seemed to be in a position to sustain its activities. There is therefore need of a clear policy on how the RLC's should operate and how they could be weaned. There is also need to instill a sense of ownership of the RLC's to the members since the members I spoke to felt that it was not their project but that of FAMWZ and ZBC.

traditional media

The DTRP could look at ways they can incorporate traditional media in their programmes, such as radio drama, music and poetry. This could make the RLC's programme more interesting or appealing to a wider audience.

feedback

Through write-ins or phone-ins other communities which are not members of the RLC's could also participate in the radio programmes, so that more voices are heard.

listening habits

The impact of developing three different programmes focusing on health, agriculture and social issues should be explored. The survey showed that, when it comes to radio, households select which programmes to listen to due to the high cost of batteries or lack of alternative cheap source of power. The introduction of different programmes on specific subjects could enable those interested in a particular subject to tune in most of the time.

complement radio with other media

There is need of more information and guidance on the different issues or subjects of the broadcasts which the RLC's hear. The print media could be used to give the communities or members a fuller understanding of the subjects addressed in the broadcasts. Print versions of the broadcast programme could also be made accessible to the participants and other community members. They would therefore be able to refer to it in the future or to read so that issues they had not understood during the broadcast are better understood.

archive

Full versions of the broadcast both in print and tape should be stored for future reference since the information could be of use in the future.

technology

Although the Bayliss winding radio was meant to address the problem of the high cost of batteries and a lack of alternative affordable source of power, its use in RLC's is not possible since they do not have the facility to record or playback a tape. They could only therefore be used to listen to a programme, hence promotion of one-way communication. There is need of developing a radio with tape recording facilities that uses the winding mechanism or the small solar panel which has now been incorporated in the winding radios. Because there is constant handling of the radio when winding the radio, there is need to design a radio that is more solid and so durable. The radio should also be affordable. The current average of seventy British Pounds for a winding radio is not affordable to many rural households in Zimbabwe.

6.5.3 Recommendations for AWFT media projects

training

The process initiated by Africa Women Filmmakers Trust to involve community members in the design and implementation of the project should look at ways of empowering the members of the Association that is to be formed with technical and management skills. This should be seen as the basis for starting community television stations in their respective areas. Training of local facilitators should therefore be encouraged. The responsibility of the facilitators would be to mobilise the communities at the local level, facilitate discussions during production and after screenings, follow up on any agreed action plan, which may result from the screening or production of a video. Through training, the problem of limited numbers of personnel with the technical skills will be addressed.

record keeping and evaluation

Detailed reports of the video productions and screenings should be kept. Form 1 and 2 could be adopted or modified and used to record activities during screenings and follow-ups after video screenings. This information would be useful when evaluating or assessing the impact of the video screenings and when conducting follow-ups.

setting the agenda

To some extent, there is need to link the activities of AWFT to specific development projects for example increased agricultural productivity or health education. However, since the participatory approach is used, part of the project should remain dealing with topics determined by the community members and these may vary from one subject to another, depending on issues the community members would have identified as priority subjects. In such cases, communities will be able to continue determining both content and subjects.

traditional media

The integration of modern and traditional media should continue to be encouraged. Communities could be encouraged to create their own dramas based on how they perceive certain issues they have watched during a video screening, particularly video programmes sourced from other independent production houses or individuals. Such programmes are generally produced without or with very limited consultation of the target groups. The way issues would be presented could be different from the way communities perceive them. The drama developed by the communities could be staged to community members in that particular area so that the messages reach a wider audience.

complement video with other media

There is need of more information and guidance on the different issues or subjects addressed in the video programmes. Print media could be used to give participants a fuller understanding of the subjects addressed in the video films. Development activists should be encouraged to use video films as discussion starters or where video cannot be shown due to lack of power or limited equipment, traditional channels of communication e.g. theatre or drama, should be considered.

broadcasting community videos

There is need of establishing links with the television broadcasting stations, particularly Zimbabwe Broadcasting Station so that some of the community video programmes are broadcast on national television for the benefit of those with access to television. This means AWFT should upgrade its equipment to broadcasting standards. This would make the video films more accessible to a wider audience and also generate revenue for other activities of AWFT.

technology

There is need to explore the possibility of the mobile video equipment being powered by solar instead of diesel which could reduce the cost of video screening workshops.

Collaboration

Collaboration with other institutions both governmental and non-governmental organisations working in development could enable the sharing of the limited resources. This could enable more work to be achieved with the limited available resources.

6.6 Concluding Remarks

In this thesis, I have shown that media, be it radio, television, video or the print media, in the case of Buhera District, which to some extent reflects the trend in the country, remains inaccessible to most rural households in Zimbabwe. In terms of radio, because of the high cost of batteries, it became evident that rural female heads of households had resorted to selective listening in order to listen to their favourite programmes longer. Educational and development orientated programmes seemed not to fall under the category of programmes which the communities tended to listen to, suggesting the need to look at how educational programmes could be made to appeal to their target groups. I have also illustrated that word of mouth remains the dominant method by which information is received by female heads of households be it on social or developmental issues.

Looking at the historical background and the techniques used by the two media organisations studied, I have attempted to show how they have used radio and video to address the issue of access as well as giving an opportunity to the marginalised communities to set their own agenda. These projects have their own weaknesses in the way they are designed. The possibility of these media projects sustaining themselves in the future is a challenge to the management. However, the media projects should be commended on the impact they have made among communities who have participated, particularly in showing how the democratisation of media can be achieved. The relevance of local media that is close to the communities it serves has been demonstrated. What is evident is that local media and mass media could be integrated for the benefit of communities. In this research, I have also demonstrated how traditional media could be integrated with modern media, especially in video production. However, more needs to be done to explore how traditional media e.g. songs, poetry, theatre, drama can be used in development.

The importance of both the RLC's by FAMWZ, the Access to Media Programme and Participation in Production Programme by AWFT should not be judged in terms of membership as in the case of the DTRP or attendances as in the case of media projects by AWFT. Judging these projects in terms of membership or attendances one would be underestimating their impact. In this study, it was evident that word of mouth played an important role in disseminating information. It is difficult to verify the primary source of information by word of mouth. It is also difficult to verify whom members of the RLC's after listening to the broadcast programme or participants to the video screenings by AWFT tell the information they have heard and of what impact that information is to them. So members of the RLC's who listen to the broadcast programme and those who attend AWFT screening sessions may be acting as the focal point and once they receive information or learn new skills they communicate what they have learnt to others through word of mouth.

More research needs to be done to find out how information flows in the rural areas. This could be done by showing a programme and then asking questions on that subject and then finding out who has heard about it and from what source. In this case, one may be able to assess the ripple effect due to information spreading by word of mouth.

There is also need of research to find out who are the audiences of the RLC programme apart from the RLC members themselves, and of what benefit this programme is to them.

It might be ideal that media projects by FAMWZ and AWFT focus more on representative participation, hence ensuring that communities in different locations have an opportunity to participate. Small groups could also be ideal as they would permit participants to discuss issues in depth.

In this study, I have deliberately avoided the use of the word grassroots communities, opting to refer to these people as rural communities because I believe that certain terminologies and particularly the way they are used, disempower those they refer to. To me, grassroots community refers to those at the bottom of the hierarchy and using such a terminology I believe I could be indirectly indorsing it, hence the choice of neutral terminologies. I have also deliberately avoided referring to the two case studies above as alternative media which is how women's media is generally classified because I believe the above techniques can be used not only by women organisations but can be integrated into the mainstream which is generally considered as 'man's media'.

What I have done is to tell the two stories and to put them in context. I have also suggested ways development communication can be improved. I acknowledge that development problems are not simple to resolve. A technique that may be suitable for one community could be ineffective when used in another community. The suggestions I made are based on the data analysis findings from both the qualitative and quantitative approach. Lastly, but not least, the need for a holistic approach to development problems cannot be overemphasised and co-operation of all the different institutions, that is, government, private and public sectors, and non-governmental organisations.

---

For the full text of this thesis, please contact the author.